LD Didactic - Physics Leaflets

P1 Mechanics

P1.1 Measuring methods

P1.1.1 Measuring lengths

P1.1.1.1 Using a caliper gauge with vernier

P1.1.1.2 Using a micrometer screw

P1.1.1.3 Using a spherometer to determine bending radii

P1.1.2 Measuring volume and density

P1.1.2.1 Determining the volume and density of solids

P1.1.2.2 Determining the density of liquids using the Plumb bob

P1.1.2.3 Determining the density of liquids using the pyknometer after Gay-Lussac

P1.1.2.4 Determining the density of air

P1.1.3 Determining the gravitational constant

P1.1.3.1 Determining the gravitational constant with the gravitation torsion balance after Cavendish - Measuring the excursion with a light pointer

P1.1.3.2 Determining the gravitational constant with the gravitation torsion balance after Cavendish - Recording the excursion and evaluating the measurement with the IR position detector and PC

P1.2 Forces

P1.2.1 Static effects of forces

P1.2.1.1 Expansion of a helical spring

P1.2.2 Force as vector

P1.2.2.1 Composition and resolution of forces

P1.2.3 Lever

P1.2.3.1 One-sided and two-sided lever

P1.2.3.2 Wheel and axle as a lever with unequal sides

P1.2.4 Block and tackle

P1.2.4.1 Fixed pulley, loose pulley and block and tackle as simple machines

P1.2.4.2 Fixed pulley, loose pulley and block and tackle as simple machines on the adhesive magnetic board

P1.2.5 Inclined plane

P1.2.5.1 Inclined plane: force along the plane and force normal to the plane

P1.2.5.2 Determining the coefficient of static friction using the inclined plane

P1.2.6 Friction

P1.2.6.1 Static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction

P1.3 Translational motions of a mass point

P1.3.2 One-dimensional motions on Fletcher’s trolley

P1.3.2.4 Path-time diagram of straight motion - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.3 One-dimensional motions on the linear air track

P1.3.3.7 Confirming Newton's first and second laws for linear motions - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.3.8 Uniformly accelerated motion with reversal of direction - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.3.9 Kinetic energy of a uniformly accelerated mass - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.4 Conservation of linear momentum

P1.3.4.1 Energy and linear momentum in elastic collision - Measuring with two forked light barriers

P1.3.4.2 Energy and linear momentum in inelastic collision - Measuring with two forked light barriers

P1.3.4.4 Newton's third law and laws of collision - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.5 Free fall

P1.3.5.1 Free fall: time measurement with the contact plate and the counter S

P1.3.5.2 Free fall: time measurement with the forked light barrier and the digital counter

P1.3.5.3 Free fall: multiple measurements with the g-ladder

P1.3.5.4 Free fall - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom

P1.3.6 Angled projection

P1.3.6.1 Point-by-point recording of the projection parabola as a function of the speed and angle of projection

P1.4 Rotational motions of a rigid body

P1.4.1 Rotational motions

P1.4.1.1 Path-time diagrams of rotational motions - Time measurement with the counter

P1.4.1.2 Path-time diagrams of rotational motions - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P1.4.2 Conservation of angular momentum

P1.4.2.1 Conservation of angular momentum in elastic rotational collision

P1.4.2.2 Conservation of angular momentum in inelastic rotational collision

P1.4.3 Centrifugal force

P1.4.3.1 Centrifugal force of an orbiting body - Measuring with the centrifugal force apparatus

P1.4.3.2 Centrifugal force of an orbiting body - Measuring with the central force apparatus

P1.4.3.3 Centrifugal force of an orbiting body - Measuring with the central force apparatus and CASSY

P1.4.5 Moment of inertia

P1.4.5.1 Definition of moment of inertia

P1.4.5.2 Moment of intertia and body shape

P1.4.5.3 Confirming Steiner’s theorem

P1.4.6 Conservation of Energy

P1.4.6.1 Maxwell's wheel

P1.5 Oscillations

P1.5.1 Simple and compound pendulum

P1.5.1.1 Determining the gravitational acceleration with a simple pendulum

P1.5.1.2 Determining the acceleration of gravity with a reversible pendulum

P1.5.2 Harmonic oscillations

P1.5.2.1 Oscillations of a spring pendulum - Recording the path, velocity and acceleration with CASSY

P1.5.2.2 Determining the oscillation period of a spring pendulum as a function of the oscillating mass

P1.5.3 Torsion pendulum

P1.5.3.1 Free rotational oscillations - Measuring with a hand-held stopclock

P1.5.3.2 Forced rotational oscillations - Measuring with a hand-held stopclock

P1.5.4 Coupling of oscillations

P1.5.4.4 Coupled pendulum - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P1.6 Wave mechanics

P1.6.1 Transversal and longitudinal waves

P1.6.1.1 Standing transversal waves on a thread

P1.6.1.2 Standing longitudinal waves on a helical spring

P1.6.3 Circularly polarized waves

P1.6.3.1 Investigating circularly polarized waves in the experiment setup after Melde

P1.6.3.2 Determining the phase velocity of circularly polarized thread waves in the experiment setup after Melde

P1.6.4 Propagation of water waves

P1.6.4.1 Exciting circular and straight water waves

P1.6.4.2 Huygens’ principle in water waves

P1.6.4.3 Propagation of water waves in two different depths

P1.6.4.4 Refraction of water waves

P1.6.4.5 Doppler effect in water waves

P1.6.4.6 Reflection of water waves at a straight obstacle

P1.6.4.7 Reflection of water waves at curved obstacles

P1.6.5 Interference of water waves

P1.6.5.1 Two-beam interference of water waves

P1.6.5.2 Lloyd’s experiment on water waves

P1.6.5.3 Diffraction of water waves at a slit and at an obstacle

P1.6.5.4 Diffraction of water waves at a multiple slit

P1.6.5.5 Standing water waves in front of a reflecting barrier

P1.7 Acoustics

P1.7.1 Sound waves

P1.7.1.2 Acoustic beats - Displaying on the oscilloscope

P1.7.1.3 Acoustic beats - Recording with CASSY

P1.7.2 Oscillations of a string

P1.7.2.1 Determining the oscillation frequency of a string as a function of the string length and tension

P1.7.3 Wavelength and velocity of sound

P1.7.3.1 Kundt's tube: determining the wavelength of sound with the cork-powder method

P1.7.3.2 Determining the wavelength of standing sound waves

P1.7.3.3 Determining the velocity of sound in air as a function of the temperature

P1.7.3.4 Determining the velocity of sound in gases

P1.7.3.5 Determining the velocity of sound in solids

P1.7.4 Reflection of ultrasonic waves

P1.7.4.1 Reflection of planar ultrasonic waves at a plane surface

P1.7.4.2 Principle of an echo sounder

P1.7.5 Interference of ultrasonic waves

P1.7.5.1 Beating of ultrasonic waves

P1.7.5.3 Diffraction of ultrasonic waves at a single slit

P1.7.5.4 Diffraction of ultrasonic waves at a double slit, a multiple slit and a grating

P1.7.6 Acoustic Doppler effect

P1.7.6.1 Investigating the Doppler effect with ultrasonic waves

P1.7.7 Fourier analysis

P1.7.7.1 Investigating fast Fourier transforms: simulation of Fourier analysis and Fourier synthesis

P1.7.7.2 Fourier analysis of the periodic signals of a function generator

P1.7.7.3 Fourier analysis of an electric oscillator circuit

P1.7.7.4 Fourier analysis of sounds

P1.8 Aero- und hydrodynamics

P1.8.2 Buoyancy

P1.8.2.1 Confirming Archimedes’ principle

P1.8.2.2 Measuring the buoyancy as a function of the immersion depth

P1.8.3 Viscosity

P1.8.3.1 Assembling a falling-ball viscosimeter to determine the viscosity of viscous fluids

P1.8.4 Surface tension

P1.8.4.1 Measuring the surface tension using the "break-away" method

P1.8.5 Introductory experiments in aerodynamics

P1.8.5.3 Determining the wind speed with a pressure head sensor - Measuring the pressure with the precision manometer

P1.8.5.4 Static pressure in a reduced cross-section - Measuring the pressure with a pressure sensor and Mobile-CASSY

P1.8.5.5 Determining the volume flow with a Venturi tube - Measuring the pressure with a pressure sensor and Mobile-CASSY

P1.8.5.6 Determining the wind speed with a pressure head sensor - Measuring the pressure with a pressure sensor and Mobile-CASSY

P1.8.7 Measurements in a wind tunnel

P1.8.7.3 Verifying the Bernoulli equation - Measuring with the precision manometer

P1.8.7.4 Verifying the Bernoulli equation - Measuring with a pressure sensor and Mobile-CASSY

P2 Heat

P2.1 Thermal expansion

P2.1.1 Thermal expansion of solids

P2.1.1.1 Thermal expansion of solids - Measuring using STM equipment

P2.1.1.2 Thermal expansion of solids - Measuring using the expansion apparatus

P2.1.1.3 Measuring the linear expansion of solids as a function of temperature

P2.1.2 Thermal expansion of liquids

P2.1.2.1 Determining the volumetric expansion coefficient of liquids

P2.1.3 Thermal anomaly of water

P2.1.3.1 Investigating the density maximum of water

P2.3 Heat as a form of energy

P2.3.2 Heat capacities

P2.3.2.1 Determining the specific heat of solids

P2.3.3 Converting mechanical energy into heat

P2.3.3.2 Converting mechanical energy into heat energy - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P2.3.4 Converting electrical energy into heat

P2.3.4.1 Converting electrical energy into heat energy - Measuring with a voltmeter and an ammeter

P2.3.4.2 Converting electrical energy into heat energy - Measuring with the joule and wattmeter

P2.3.4.3 Converting electrical energy into heat energy - Measuring with CASSY

P2.4 Phase transitions

P2.4.1 Latent heat and vaporization heat

P2.4.1.1 Determining the specific vaporization heat of water

P2.4.1.2 Determining the specific latent heat of ice

P2.4.3 Critical temperature

P2.4.3.1 Observing the phase transition between the liquid and the gas phase at the critical point

P2.5 Kinetic theory of gases

P2.5.1 Brownian motion of molecules

P2.5.1.1 Brownian movement of smoke particles

P2.5.2 Gas laws

P2.5.2.1 Pressure-dependency of the volume of a gas at a constant temperature (Boyle-Mariotte’s law)

P2.5.2.2 Temperature-dependency of the volume of a gas at a constant pressure (Gay-Lussac’s law)

P2.5.2.3 Temperature-dependency of the pressure of a gas at a constant volume (Amontons’ law)

P2.5.3 Specific heat of gases

P2.5.3.1 Determining the adiabatic exponent C_p/C_V of air after Rüchardt

P2.6 Thermodynamic cycle

P2.6.1 Hot-air engine: qualitative experiments

P2.6.1.1 Operating a hot-air engine as a thermal engine

P2.6.1.3 Operating the hot-air engine as a heat pump and a refrigerator

P2.6.2 Hot-air engine: quantitative experiments

P2.6.2.1 Frictional losses in the hot-air engine (calorific determination)

P2.6.2.2 Determining the efficiency of the hot-air engine as a heat engine

P2.6.2.3 Determining the efficiency of the hot-air engine as a refrigerator

P2.6.2.4 pV diagram of the hot-air engine as a heat engine - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P2.6.3 Heat pump

P2.6.3.1 Determining the efficiency of the heat pump as a function of the temperature differential

P2.6.3.2 Investigating the function of the expansion valve of the heat pump

P2.6.3.3 Analyzing the cyclical process of the heat pump with the Mollier diagram

P3 Electricity

P3.1 Electrostatics

P3.1.1 Basic experiments on electrostatics

P3.1.1.2 Basic electrostatics experiments with the electrometer amplifier

P3.1.2 Coulomb’s law

P3.1.2.1 Confirming Coulomb’s law - Measuring with the torsion balance, Schürholz design

P3.1.2.2 Confirming Coulomb’s law - Measuring with the force sensor

P3.1.2.3 Confirming Coulomb’s law - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P3.1.3 Field lines and equipotential lines

P3.1.3.3 Measuring the potential inside a plate capacitor

P3.1.3.4 Measuring the potential around a charged sphere

P3.1.4 Effects of force in an electric field

P3.1.4.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage balance: Measuring the force between two charged plates of a plate capacitor

P3.1.4.3 Measuring the force between a charged sphere and a metal plate

P3.1.5 Charge distributions on electrical conductors

P3.1.5.1 Investigating the charge distribution on the surface of electrical conductors

P3.1.5.2 Electrostatic induction with the hemispheres after Cavendish

P3.1.6 Definition of capacitance

P3.1.6.1 Determining the capacitance of a sphere in free space

P3.1.6.2 Determining the capacitance of a sphere in front of a metal plate

P3.1.7 Plate capacitor

P3.1.7.1 Determining the capacitance of a plate capacitor - Measuring the charge with the electrometer amplifier

P3.1.7.2 Parallel and series connection of capacitors - Measuring the charge with the electrometer amplifier

P3.1.7.3 Determining the capacitance of a plate capacitor - Measuring the charge with the I-measuring amplifier D

P3.1.7.4 Measuring the electric field strength inside a plate capacitor

P3.1.7.5 Measuring the electric field strength inside a plate capacitor as a function of the dielectrics

P3.1.7.6 Measuring the electric field strength of a charged sphere in front of a conductive plate (image charge)

P3.2 Fundamentals of electricity

P3.2.2 Ohm’s law

P3.2.2.1 Verifying Ohm’s law and measuring specific resistances

P3.2.5 Conducting electricity by means of electrolysis

P3.2.5.1 Determining the Faraday constant

P3.3 Magnetostatics

P3.3.3 Effects of force in a magnetic field

P3.3.3.1 Measuring the force acting on current-carrying conductors in the field of a horseshoe magnet

P3.3.3.2 Measuring the force acting on current-carrying conductors in a homogeneous magnetic field - Recording with CASSY

P3.3.3.3 Measuring the force acting on current-carrying conductors in the magnetic field of an air coil - Recording with CASSY

P3.3.4 Biot-Savart’s law

P3.3.4.1 Measuring the magnetic field for a straight conductor and on circular conductor loops

P3.3.4.2 Measuring the magnetic field of an air coil

P3.4 Electromagnetic induction

P3.4.1 Voltage impulse

P3.4.1.1 Generating a voltage surge in a conductor loop with a moving permanent magnet

P3.4.2 Induction in a moving conductor loop

P3.4.2.1 Measuring the induction voltage in a conductor loop moved through a magnetic field

P3.4.3 Induction by means of a variable magnetic field

P3.4.3.1 Measuring the induction voltage in a conductor loop for a variable magnetic field - with triangular wave-form power supply

P3.4.4 Eddy currents

P3.4.4.1 Waltenhofen’s pendulum: demonstration of an eddy-current brake

P3.4.4.2 Demonstrating the operating principle of an AC power meter

P3.4.5 Transformer

P3.4.5.1 Voltage and current transformation with a transformer

P3.4.5.2 Voltage transformation with a transformer under load

P3.4.5.3 Recording the voltage and current of a transformer under load as a function of time

P3.4.5.4 Power transmission of a transformer

P3.4.5.5 Experiments with high currents

P3.4.6 Measuring the earth’s magnetic field

P3.4.6.1 Measuring the earth’s magnetic field with a rotating induction coil (earth inductor)

P3.6 DC and AC circuits

P3.6.1 Circuit with capacitor

P3.6.1.1 Charging and discharging a capacitor when switching DC on and off

P3.6.1.2 Determining the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit

P3.6.3 Impedances

P3.6.3.1 Determining the impedance in circuits with capacitors and ohmic resistors

P3.6.3.2 Determining the impedance in circuits with coils and ohmic resistors

P3.6.4 Measuring-bridge circuits

P3.6.4.1 Determining capacitive reactance with a Wien measuring bridge

P3.6.4.2 Determining inductive reactance with a Maxwell measuring bridge

P3.6.6 Electrical work and power

P3.6.6.2 Determining the electric work of an immersion heater using an AC power meter

P3.7 Electromagnetic oscillations and waves

P3.7.2 Decimeter-range waves

P3.7.2.1 Radiation characteristic and polarization of decimeter waves

P3.7.2.2 Amplitude modulation of decimeter waves

P3.7.2.4 Estimating the dielectric constant of water in the decimeter-wave range

P3.7.3 Propagation of decimeter-range waves along lines

P3.7.3.1 Determining the current and voltage maxima on a Lecher line

P3.7.3.2 Investigating the current and voltage on a Lecher line with a loop dipole

P3.7.4 Microwaves

P3.7.4.1 Directional characteristic and polarization of microwaves in front of a horn antenna

P3.7.4.2 Absorption of microwaves

P3.7.4.3 Interference of microwaves

P3.7.4.5 Refraction of microwaves

P3.7.5 Propagation of microwaves along lines

P3.7.5.1 Guiding of microwaves along a Lecher line

P3.7.5.2 Qualitative demonstration of guiding of microwaves along a metal waveguide

P3.8 Free charge carriers in a vacuum

P3.8.1 Tube diode

P3.8.1.1 Recording the characteristic of a tube diode

P3.8.1.2 Half-wave rectification using a tube diode

P3.8.2 Tube triode

P3.8.2.1 Recording the characteristic field of a tube triode

P3.8.3 Maltese-cross tube

P3.8.3.1 Demonstrating the linear propagation of electrons in a field-free space

P3.8.3.2 Deflection of electrons in an axial magnetic field

P3.8.4 Perrin tube

P3.8.4.1 Hot-cathode emission in a vacuum: determining the polarity and estimating the specific charge of the emitted charge carriers

P3.8.4.2 Generating Lissajou figures through electron deflection in crossed alternating magnetic fields

P3.8.4.3 Generating Lissajou figures through electron deflection in parallel alternating electrical and magnetic field

P3.8.5 Thomson tube

P3.8.5.1 Investigating the deflection of electrons in electrical and magnetic fields

P3.8.5.2 Assembling a velocity filter (Wien filter) to determine the specific electron charge

P3.9 Electrical conduction in gases

P3.9.2 Gas discharge at reduced pressure

P3.9.2.1 Investigating spontaneous gas discharge in air as a function of pressure

P4 Electronics

P4.1 Components, basic circuits

P4.1.1 Current and voltage sources

P4.1.1.1 Determining the internal resistance of a battery

P4.1.1.3 Recording the current-voltage characteristics of a solar battery as a function of the irradiance

P4.1.2 Special resisistors

P4.1.2.1 Recording the current-voltage characteristic of an incandescent lamp

P4.1.3 Diodes

P4.1.3.1 Recording the current-voltage characteristics of diodes

P4.1.3.2 Recording the current-voltage characteristics of Zener diodes (Z-diodes)

P4.1.3.3 Recording the current-voltage characteristics of light-emitting diodes (LED)

P4.1.5 Transistors

P4.1.5.1 Investigating the diode properties of transistor junctions

P4.1.5.2 Recording the characteristics of a transistor

P4.1.5.3 Recording the characteristics of a field-effect transistor

P4.2 Operational amplifier

P4.2.1 Internal design of an operational amplifier

P4.2.1.1 Discrete assembly of an operational amplifier as a transistor circuit

P4.3 Open- and closed-loop control

P4.3.2 Closed-loop control

P4.3.2.2 Brightness control with CASSY

P4.3.2.3 Voltage control with CASSY

P5 Optics

P5.1 Geometrical optics

P5.1.1 Reflection, refraction

P5.1.1.1 Reflection of light at straight and curved mirrors

P5.1.1.2 Refraction of light at straight surfaces and investigation of ray paths in prisms and lenses

P5.1.2 Laws of imaging

P5.1.2.1 Determining the focal lengths at collecting and dispersing lenses using collimated light

P5.1.2.2 Determining the focal lengths at collecting lenses through autocollimation

P5.1.2.3 Determining the focal lengths at collecting lenses using Bessel’s method

P5.1.2.4 Verifying the imaging laws with a collecting lens

P5.1.3 Image distortion

P5.1.3.1 Spherical aberration in lens imaging

P5.1.3.2 Astigmatism and curvature of image field in lens imaging

P5.1.3.3 Lens imaging distortions (barrel and cushion) and coma

P5.1.3.4 Chromatic aberration in lens imaging

P5.1.4 Optical instruments

P5.1.4.1 Magnifier and microscope

P5.1.4.2 Kepler’s telescope and Galileo’s telescope

P5.3 Wave optics

P5.3.1 Diffraction

P5.3.1.1 Diffraction at a slit, at a post and at a circular iris diaphragm

P5.3.1.2 Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits

P5.3.1.3 Diffraction at one- and two-dimensional gratings

P5.3.1.4 Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P5.3.1.5 Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P5.3.2 Two-beam interference

P5.3.2.1 Interference at a Fresnel's mirror with an He-Ne laser

P5.3.2.2 Lloyd’s mirror experiment with an He-Ne laser

P5.3.2.3 Interference at Fresnel’s biprism with an He-Ne laser

P5.3.3 Newton's Rings

P5.3.3.1 Newton's Rings in transmitted monochromatic light

P5.3.3.2 Newton's rings in transmitted and reflected white light

P5.3.4 Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.1 Setting up a Michelson interferometer on the laser optics base plate

P5.3.4.2 Determining the wavelength of the light of an He-Ne laser using a Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.4 Determination of the coherence time and the line width of spectral lines with the Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.5 Investigation of the pressure induced line broadening using a Michelson interferometer

P5.3.4.6 Determination of the line splitting of two spectral lines using a Michelson interferometer

P5.3.5 Mach-Zehnder interferometer

P5.3.5.1 Setting up a Mach-Zehnder interferometer on the laser optics base plate

P5.3.5.2 Measuring the refractive index of air with a Mach-Zehnder interferometer

P5.3.6 White-light Reflection Holography

P5.3.6.1 Creating white-light reflection holograms on the laser optics base plate

P5.3.7 Transmission Holography

P5.3.7.1 Creating transmission holograms on the laser optics base plate

P5.4 Polarization

P5.4.2 Birefringence

P5.4.2.1 Birefringence and polarization with calcareous spar

P5.4.2.2 Quarter-wavelength and half-wavelength plate

P5.4.2.3 Photoelasticity: Investigating the distribution of strains in mechanically stressed bodies

P5.4.3 Optical activity, polarimetry

P5.4.3.1 Rotation of the plane of polarization with quartz

P5.4.3.2 Rotation of the plane of polarization with sugar solutions

P5.4.3.3 Building a half-shadow polarimeter with discrete elements

P5.4.5 Pockels effect

P5.4.5.1 Demonstrating the Pockels effect in a conoscopic beam path

P5.4.5.2 Pockels effect: transmitting information using modulated light

P5.4.6 Faraday effect

P5.4.6.1 Faraday effect: determining Verdet’s constant for flint glass as a function of the wavelength

P5.5 Light Intensity

P5.5.1 Quantities and measuring methods of lighting engineering

P5.5.1.2 Determining the luminous intensity as a function of the distance from the light source - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P5.5.2 Laws of radiation

P5.5.2.1 Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the radiant intensity of a "black body" as a function of temperature

P5.5.2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the radiant intensity of a "black body" as a function of temperature - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P5.5.2.3 Confirming the laws of radiation with Leslie's cube

P5.6 Velocity of light

P5.6.1 Measurement according to Foucault/Michelson

P5.6.1.1 Determining the velocity of light by means of the rotating-mirror method according to Foucault and Michelson - Measuring the image shift as a function of the rotational speed of the mirror

P5.6.1.2 Determining the velocity of light by means of the rotating-mirror method according to Foucault and Michelson - Measuring the image shift for the maximum rotational speed of the mirror

P5.6.2 Measuring with short light pulses

P5.6.2.1 Determining the velocity of light in air from the path and transit time of a short light pulse

P5.6.2.2 Determining the propagation velocity of voltage pulses in coaxial cables

P5.6.3 Measuring with a periodical light signal

P5.6.3.1 Determining the velocity of light using a periodical light signal at a short measuring distance

P5.6.3.2 Determining the velocity of light for different propagation media

P5.6.3.3 Determining the velocity of light using a periodical light signal at a short measuring distance - measuring with the laser motion sensor S and CASSY

P5.6.3.4 Determining the velocity of light for different propagation media - measuring with the laser motion sensor S and CASSY

P5.7 Spectrometer

P5.7.1 Prism spectrometer

P5.7.1.1 Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a prism spectrometer

P5.7.2 Grating spectrometer

P5.7.2.1 Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a grating spectrometer

P5.7.2.4 Determining the grating constant of a holographic grating with an He-Ne-Laser

P5.8 Laser optics

P5.8.5 Technical applications

P5.8.5.1 Laser Doppler Anemometry with CASSY

P6 Atomic and Nuclear Physics

P6.1 Introductory experiments

P6.1.1 Oil-spot experiment

P6.1.1.1 Estimating the size of oil molecules

P6.1.2 Millikan experiment

P6.1.2.3 Determining the electric unit charge after Millikan and verifying the charge quantification - Measuring the suspension voltage and the falling speed with CASSY

P6.1.2.4 Determining the electric unit charge after Millikan and verifying the charge quantification - Measuring the rising and falling speed with CASSY

P6.1.3 Specific electron charge

P6.1.3.1 Determining the specific charge of the electron

P6.1.4 Planck's constant

P6.1.4.1 Determining Planck's constant - Measuring in a compact assembly

P6.1.4.3 Determining Planck's constant - Selection of wavelengths using interference filters on the optical bench

P6.1.4.4 Determining Planck's constant - Recording the current-voltage characteristics, selection of wavelengths using interference filters on the optical bench

P6.1.4.5 Determining Planck's constant - Recording the current-voltage characteristics, measuring in a compact assembly

P6.1.5 Dual nature of wave and particle

P6.1.5.1 Deflection of electrons at a polycrystalline lattice (Debye-Scherrer diffraction)

P6.1.5.2 Optical analogy to electron diffraction at a polycrystalline lattice

P6.1.6 Paul trap

P6.1.6.1 Observing individual lycopod spores in a Paul trap

P6.2 Atomic shell

P6.2.1 Balmer series of hydrogen

P6.2.1.1 Determining the wavelengths H_a, H_b and H_g from the Balmer series of hydrogen

P6.2.1.3 Observing the splitting of the Balmer series on deuterated hydrogen (isotope splitting)

P6.2.2 Emission and absorption spectra

P6.2.2.2 Qualitative investitation of the absorption spectrum of sodium

P6.2.4 Franck-Hertz experiment

P6.2.4.1 Franck-Hertz experiment with mercury - Recording with the oscilloscope, the XY-recorder and point by point

P6.2.4.3 Franck-Hertz experiment with neon - Recording with the oscilloscope, the XY-recorder and point by point

P6.2.6 Electron spin resonance

P6.2.6.2 Electron spin resonance at DPPH - determinig the magnetic field as a function of the resonance frequency

P6.2.6.3 Resonance absorption of a passive RF oscillator circuit

P6.2.7 Normal Zeeman effect

P6.2.7.1 Observing the normal Zeeman effect in transverse and longitudinal configuration - spectroscopy using a Lummer-Gehrcke plate

P6.2.7.3 Observing the normal Zeeman effect in transverse and longitudinal configuration - spectroscopy using a Fabry-Perot etalon

P6.2.7.4 Measuring the Zeeman splitting of the red cadmium line as a function of the magnetic field - spectroscopy using a Fabry-Perot etalon

P6.2.8 Optical pumping (anomalous Zeeman effect)

P6.2.8.1 Optical pumping: observing the pump signal

P6.2.8.2 Optical pumping: measuring and observing the Zeeman transitions in the ground states of Rb-87 with s⁺- and s^--pumped light

P6.3 X-ray physics

P6.3.1 Detection of x-rays

P6.3.1.1 Fluorescence of a luminescent screen due to x-rays

P6.3.1.2 X-ray photography: Exposure of film stock due to x-rays

P6.3.1.3 Detecting x-rays using an ionization chamber

P6.3.1.4 Determining the ion dose rate of the x-ray tube with molydenum anode

P6.3.2 Attenuation of x-rays

P6.3.2.1 Investigating the attenuation of x-rays as a function of the absorber material and absorber thickness

P6.3.2.2 Investigating the wavelength dependency of the attenuation coefficient

P6.3.2.3 Investigating the relationship between the attenuation coefficient and the atomic number Z

P6.3.3 Physics of the atomic shell

P6.3.3.1 Bragg reflection: diffraction of x-rays at a monocrystal

P6.3.3.2 Investigating the energy spectrum of an x-ray tube as a function of the high voltage and the emission current

P6.3.3.3 Duane-Hunt relation and determination of Planck's constant

P6.3.3.4 Fine structure of the characteristic x-ray radiation of a molybdenum anode

P6.3.3.5 Edge absorption: filtering x-rays

P6.3.3.6 Moseley's law and determination of the Rydberg constant

P6.3.3.7 Compton effect: verifying the energy loss of the scattered x-ray quantum

P6.3.5 X-ray energy spectroscopy

P6.3.5.1 Recording and calibrating an x-ray energy spectrum

P6.3.5.2 Recording the energy spectrum of a molybdenum anode

P6.3.5.3 Recording the energy spectrum of a copper anode

P6.3.5.4 Investigation of the characteristic spectra as a function of the element's atomic number: K-lines

P6.3.5.5 Investigation of the characteristic spectra as a function of the element's atomic number: L-lines

P6.3.5.6 Energy-resolved Bragg reflection in different orders of diffraction

P6.3.6 Structure of x-ray spectrums

P6.3.6.1 Fine structure of the characteristic x-ray radiation of a molybdenum anode

P6.3.6.2 Fine structure of the characteristic x-ray radiation of a copper anode

P6.3.6.3 Fine structure of the characteristic x-ray radiation of an iron anode

P6.3.7 Compton effect at x-rays

P6.3.7.1 Compton effect: verifying the energy loss of the scattered x-ray quantum

P6.3.7.2 Compton effect: Measurement the energy of the scattered photons as a function of the scattering angle

P6.4 Radioactivity

P6.4.1 Detecting radioactivity

P6.4.1.1 Ionization of air through radioactivity

P6.4.1.4 Recording the characteristic of a Geiger-Müller (end-window) counter tube

P6.4.2 Poisson distribution

P6.4.2.1 Statistical variations in determining counting rates

P6.4.3 Radioactive decay and half-life

P6.4.3.4 Determining the half-life of Cs-137 - Recording and evaluating the decay curve with CASSY

P6.5 Nuclear physics

P6.5.1 Demonstrating paths of particles

P6.5.1.1 Demonstrating the tracks of a particles in a Wilson cloud chamber

P6.5.2 Rutherford scattering

P6.5.2.1 Rutherford scattering: measuring the scattering rate as a function of the scattering angle and the atomic number

P6.5.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance

P6.5.3.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance in polystyrene, glycerin and Teflon

P6.5.4 a-spectroscopy

P6.5.4.1 a spectroscopy of radioactive samples

P6.5.4.2 Determining the energy loss of a radiation in air

P6.5.4.3 Determining the energy loss of a radiation in aluminum and in gold

P6.5.4.4 Determining age using a Ra-226 sample

P6.5.5 g-spectroscopy

P6.5.5.1 Detecting g radiation with a scintillation counter

P6.5.5.2 Recording and calibrating a g spectrum

P6.5.5.3 Absorption of g radiation

P6.5.5.4 Identifying and determining the activity of radioactive samples

P6.5.5.5 Recording a b spectrum with a scintillation counter

P6.5.5.6 Coincidence and g-g angular correlation in positron decay

P6.5.6 Compton effect

P6.5.6.1 Quantitative observation of the Compton effect

P7 Solid-State Physics

P7.1 Properties of crystals

P7.1.1 Crystal structure

P7.1.1.1 Structure of a body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic lattice

P7.1.2 X-ray structural analysis

P7.1.2.1 Bragg reflection: determining the lattice constants of monocrystals

P7.1.2.2 Laue diagrams: investigating the lattice structure of monocrystals

P7.1.2.3 Debye-Scherrer photography: determining the lattice plane spacings of polycrystalline powder samples

P7.1.2.4 Debye-Scherrer Scan: determining the lattice plane spacings of polycrystalline powder samples

P7.1.4 Elastic and plastic deformation

P7.1.4.2 Investigating the elastic and plastic extension of metal wires - Recording and evaluating with CASSY

P7.2 Conduction phenomena

P7.2.1 Hall effect

P7.2.1.1 Investigating the Hall effect in silver

P7.2.1.2 Investigating the anomalous Hall effect in tungsten

P7.2.1.3 Determining the density and mobility of charge carriers in n-Germanium

P7.2.1.4 Determining the density and mobility of charge carriers in p-Germanium

P7.2.1.5 Determining the band gap of germanium

P7.2.2 Electrical conductivity in solids

P7.2.2.1 Measuring the temperature-dependency of a noble-metal resistor

P7.2.2.2 Measuring the temperature-dependency of a semiconductor resistor

P7.2.3 Photoconductivity

P7.2.3.1 Recording the current-voltage characteristics of a CdS photoresistor

P7.2.4 Luminescence

P7.2.4.1 Exciting luminescence through irraditaion with ultraviolet light and electrons

P7.2.6 Superconductivity

P7.2.6.1 Determining the transition temperature of a high-temperature superconductor

P7.3 Magnetism

P7.3.2 Ferromagnetic hysteresis

P7.3.2.1 Recording the initial magnetization curve and the hysteresis curve of a ferromagnet

P7.5 Applied Solid-State Physics

P7.5.1 X-ray fluorescence analysis

P7.5.1.1 Application of x-ray fluorescence for the non-destructive analysis of the chemical composition

P7.5.1.2 Determination of the chemical composition of a brass sample by x-ray fluorescence analysis

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